Genetics Dissertation Topics With Named Datasets, Methods and Ethics Routes

Questions to Ask Before You Pick a Genetics Topic
- Can I get the data, or the lab time, for this within my deadline?
- Is my question about one gene, one condition or one policy, or have I made it too wide?
- Does my supervisor work in human genetics, genomics, microbial or plant genetics?
- Will I need ethics approval, and how long does my university take to give it?
- Can I defend a clear answer using sources I can actually read and cite?
This page of genetics dissertation topics leans towards human and medical genetics and genomics, with sections on microbial, plant and bench-based work. If your degree sits closer to cell biology or molecular chemistry, see biochemistry dissertation topics or biology dissertation topics. For clinical and counselling angles, try genetics nursing dissertation topics. Check your own university’s rules on topic approval, data use and ethics before you commit.
Position correct as of October 2026. Genetics policy and trial results move quickly, so check the latest source for any topic that depends on a regulator, a guideline or a live trial.
Every topic below is free to use. Each one names a gene, dataset, method, law or case so you can start searching straight away, and they run in one continuous list from 1 to 140.
Rare Disease and Variant Interpretation Genetics Dissertation Topics
Variant interpretation is where many strong genetics dissertations start, because public data lets you work without a wet lab. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Reclassifying variants of uncertain significance in ClinVar for one named gene such as BRCA2 Compare how submitters classified the same variants and where they disagree. A desk-based audit works well at undergraduate level.
- Applying the ACMG/AMP 2015 criteria to ten variants and testing how much the evidence codes change the outcome Pick variants with mixed evidence and score them independently, then discuss where judgement enters.
- Missense variant pathogenicity predictors tested against ClinVar: AlphaMissense versus REVEL Use a held-out set of expert-reviewed variants and compare accuracy, bias and failure cases.
- Using gnomAD v4.1 allele frequencies to filter candidate variants in one rare recessive condition Show how population frequency thresholds remove false candidates and what that does to diagnostic yield.
- Why do some people with a pathogenic CFTR variant show mild cystic fibrosis? Modifier genes and environment Review modifier gene evidence and propose how a cohort study could separate genetic from environmental effects.
- Does the 100,000 Genomes Project evidence support whole genome sequencing as a first-line test for rare disease? Assess published diagnostic yields against targeted panels and consider cost and time to diagnosis.
- Incomplete penetrance in familial hypercholesterolaemia: what explains carriers with normal LDL cholesterol? Examine polygenic background, lifestyle and age as explanations using published family data.
- Mosaicism as a missed cause of apparent de novo variants in neurodevelopmental disorders Discuss sequencing depth, tissue sampled and how mosaic variants are detected and reported.
- Long-read sequencing for structural variants that short-read exome testing misses Compare detection rates in published studies and judge whether clinical labs can realistically adopt it.
- Trinucleotide repeat expansion in Huntington’s disease: how repeat length predicts age of onset Analyse published repeat length and onset data, then discuss the role of somatic instability.
- Founder variants in isolated populations and the practical value of population-specific screening Use one named founder variant to ask when targeted screening is justified over a broad panel.
- Diagnostic odyssey in rare disease: what the published evidence says about time to a genetic diagnosis A review question suited to health-focused students, with a strong policy angle.
- Reanalysis of unsolved exomes: how often does a second look produce a diagnosis? Compare reported reanalysis yields and ask how often labs should revisit negative results.
Biobanks and Polygenic Score Genetics Dissertation Topics
Large cohorts give you real data and real controversy. Check the access route and timeline early, since applications can take months. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Ancestry bias in polygenic scores for coronary artery disease: performance in UK Biobank groups Compare score accuracy across genetic ancestry groups and discuss what better-calibrated scores would need.
- Do polygenic risk scores add anything to QRISK-style clinical risk calculators? Review studies that combine both and judge whether the gain in prediction justifies clinical use.
- Polygenic embryo screening: reading the HFEA position and the scientific evidence side by side The HFEA does not permit polygenic screening of embryos in UK treatment. Test that position against published within-family prediction limits.
- Mendelian randomisation using UK Biobank: how weak instruments can distort a causal claim A methods-heavy topic. Explain the assumptions and show one published example where they were challenged.
- Healthy volunteer bias in UK Biobank and what it means for disease prevalence estimates Compare cohort characteristics with national data and discuss consequences for generalising findings.
- Consent and data governance in biobanks: dynamic consent versus broad consent A social science route into genetics, suited to students working with qualitative methods.
- Return of incidental findings in biobank research: should participants be told about actionable variants? Weigh published guidance and participant attitude studies, and set out a clear position.
- Heritability estimates for height versus educational attainment: why twin and genomic methods differ Explain missing heritability with named studies and avoid overstating what a percentage means.
- Using Our Future Health to study a common condition: what the resource offers a student and what it does not Describe access limits honestly and design a feasible secondary analysis around them.
- Polygenic scores for type 2 diabetes in South Asian populations: what the evidence says and where gaps remain Review cohort studies and consider why under-representation changes accuracy.
- Genome-wide association studies of asthma: from association signals to candidate causal genes Follow one locus through fine-mapping and functional annotation.
- Sex differences in genetic association results: are they analysed and reported properly? A critical review of how GWAS handle the X chromosome and sex-stratified analysis.
Gene Editing and Gene Therapy Genetics Dissertation Topics
These topics sit between science and policy. Pick one product or one condition so the dissertation stays narrow. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Casgevy for sickle cell disease and beta thalassaemia: the clinical trial evidence and the cost question for the NHS Summarise the pivotal trial results and assess how health technology appraisal handled the price.
- Off-target editing by CRISPR-Cas9: how detection methods such as GUIDE-seq differ in sensitivity Compare assays and discuss what level of off-target risk regulators should accept.
- Base editing versus prime editing for correcting a point mutation: a head-to-head literature comparison Pick one disease variant and compare efficiency, bystander edits and delivery.
- Lipid nanoparticle delivery to the liver and why other organs remain hard to reach A review question on the main bottleneck in in vivo editing.
- AAV vector immune responses and re-dosing limits in gene therapy Examine the evidence on pre-existing antibodies and what it means for patient eligibility.
- Gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy: comparing onasemnogene with antisense and splicing treatments Compare mechanism, outcomes and cost, noting what the long-term data can and cannot show.
- Huntingtin-lowering therapies: what the AMT-130 and antisense trial data suggest so far Regulatory positions are still moving, so state your cut-off date and cite the latest sources.
- The 2018 He Jiankui case and the legal response in China’s Criminal Law Amendment XI A law and ethics topic. Trace what happened and what legal controls followed.
- Germline editing in the UK: Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act limits and the case for reform Explain current law and set out arguments for and against change using published ethics reports.
- Epigenome editing with dCas9 as an alternative to cutting DNA Review proof-of-concept studies and ask whether durable silencing is realistic.
- Gene therapy pricing models: outcomes-based payment in practice Compare reported agreements and test whether they shift risk away from health systems.
- Informed consent for first-in-human gene therapy trials with children Combine ethics frameworks with published trial protocols.
- Mitochondrial donation in the UK: the evidence behind the licensed procedure Review the published outcomes and the regulatory route taken by the HFEA.
Epigenetics and RNA Biology Genetics Dissertation Topics
Epigenetics claims are easy to overstate. Strong dissertations name the tissue, the assay and the limits of causal inference. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- DNA methylation clocks: how accurate are Horvath and GrimAge in predicting biological age? Compare error rates across tissues and populations, and ask what the predictions are actually used for.
- The Dutch Hunger Winter and methylation at IGF2: what the evidence supports Re-read the original cohort findings critically, including sample size and confounding.
- Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in humans: where evidence is strong and where it is thin Separate animal findings from human claims and explain why the difference matters.
- Imprinting disorders: comparing Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes at chromosome 15q11-q13 A clear comparison of mechanism, diagnosis and testing.
- Methylation signatures as a diagnostic tool for rare neurodevelopmental disorders Review episignature studies and discuss readiness for routine clinical use.
- Cell-free DNA methylation for early cancer detection: the NHS-Galleri trial question Assess what has been reported and what the screening evidence still needs to show.
- MicroRNA biomarkers in cardiovascular disease: why so few reach clinical use A critical review of reproducibility and assay standardisation.
- Alternative splicing errors in disease: SF3B1 mutations in myelodysplastic syndromes Link splicing machinery to disease mechanism using named studies.
- Long non-coding RNA XIST and X chromosome inactivation A mechanism-based review, with a note on escape genes and sex differences.
- Single-cell RNA sequencing: how doublets and ambient RNA distort cell type calls A computational topic with open datasets and clear quality control steps.
- Maternal smoking and offspring methylation: evidence from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children Examine reported associations and the problem of separating exposure from genotype.
- Histone deacetylase inhibitors in cancer treatment: gains and limits Review approved agents and ask why solid tumour results lag behind blood cancers.
Cancer Genomics Genetics Dissertation Topics
Cancer genomics offers open data and clear clinical stakes. State the cancer type up front. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Lynch syndrome universal tumour testing: effectiveness of screening all colorectal cancers Analyse published uptake and detection rates and the follow-up problem.
- TP53 variants in Li-Fraumeni syndrome and surveillance protocols Review the evidence behind whole-body MRI surveillance.
- Tumour mutational burden as an immunotherapy biomarker: where the threshold debate stands Compare studies and explain why one cut-off does not suit every tumour type.
- HER2-low breast cancer: how a reclassified biomarker changed treatment Trace the trial evidence and the testing challenges for pathology labs.
- Clonal haematopoiesis and cardiovascular risk A review linking somatic mutations in blood to non-cancer outcomes, using named genes such as DNMT3A and TET2.
- Liquid biopsy for monitoring minimal residual disease in colorectal cancer Compare studies and assess whether results should change treatment decisions.
- Using The Cancer Genome Atlas to compare mutation spectra in two tumour types A reproducible bioinformatics project with public data.
- Germline testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 in prostate cancer: who should be offered it? Review current guidance and the evidence behind PARP inhibitor use.
- Mutational signatures: what they reveal about smoking, UV exposure and DNA repair defects Apply a published signature catalogue to a public dataset.
- Tumour heterogeneity and the limits of single-biopsy sequencing Discuss multi-region sequencing studies and what they imply for clinical decisions.
- Paediatric cancer genomics: findings from whole genome sequencing programmes Assess how often sequencing changes diagnosis or treatment in children.
- Polygenic risk and breast cancer screening: the case for risk-stratified invitation Review trial protocols and modelling studies, with attention to ethics.
If you want a topic matched to your course level, the dissertation topic finder can shortlist options, and our biology dissertation writing service is there if you want expert support with a plan you have already chosen.
Pharmacogenomics Genetics Dissertation Topics
Pharmacogenomics links genetics to everyday prescribing. These topics suit pharmacy, medicine and nursing crossovers. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- DPYD testing before fluoropyrimidine chemotherapy: implementation in NHS cancer services Examine the evidence for pre-treatment testing and barriers in routine practice.
- CYP2C19 and clopidogrel: does genotype-guided antiplatelet therapy improve outcomes? Compare trial results and discuss who might benefit.
- HLA-B*57:01 screening before abacavir: a success story in pharmacogenetics Explain why this test was adopted quickly and what other drugs lack.
- CYP2D6 variation and codeine safety in breastfeeding and childhood Review the safety warnings and the genetics behind ultrarapid metabolism.
- Warfarin dosing algorithms: genotype-guided versus clinical dosing Compare randomised trials and ask why results differed.
- HLA-B*15:02 and carbamazepine in Southeast Asian populations Look at screening evidence and the lessons for ancestry-specific testing.
- Pre-emptive panel testing in primary care: feasibility and cost evidence Review pilot programmes and the data-sharing problem across care settings.
- Pharmacogenomic knowledge among GPs and pharmacists A survey-based topic suited to students who want primary data.
- Clinical decision support for pharmacogenomic results in electronic health records Review implementation studies and alert fatigue.
- SLCO1B1 variants and statin-induced muscle symptoms Assess the evidence for testing and the role of nocebo effects.
- Thiopurine methyltransferase testing in inflammatory bowel disease Look at cost-effectiveness studies and adherence to testing guidance.
Reproductive Genetics and Newborn Screening Dissertation Topics
Policy and ethics lead here. A narrow question and a clear cut-off date matter more than breadth. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Non-invasive prenatal testing in the NHS: uptake, accuracy and the quality of counselling Compare high-chance results to confirmatory tests and review how choice is supported.
- Down syndrome screening and disability rights: how the ethics literature frames the debate A humanities-friendly topic with strong source material.
- The Genomics England Generation Study: ethical questions in newborn genome sequencing Examine consent, conditions chosen and storage of data.
- Newborn screening for spinal muscular atrophy: the UK National Screening Committee evaluation Check the current status carefully, then analyse the evidence criteria used.
- Expanded carrier screening: arguments for population offering versus targeted testing Weigh cost, anxiety and clinical utility using published guidance.
- Preimplantation genetic testing for monogenic conditions in the UK: HFEA approval and its limits Explain the list-based approach and the case for individual assessment.
- Cell-free DNA screening for rare conditions beyond trisomies Review accuracy data and ask whether positive predictive values justify offering it.
- Genetic counselling models: face-to-face, telephone and digital Compare published outcomes and patient experience data.
- Reproductive decision-making among carriers of cystic fibrosis A qualitative design option using interviews and thematic analysis.
- Variant of uncertain significance results in prenatal exome sequencing Examine how labs report them and how parents respond.
- Direct-to-consumer carrier testing: accuracy, regulation and clinical follow-up Review validation studies and consumer protection rules.
Genetics Law, Ethics and Policy Dissertation Topics
Combine this section with a law or sociology supervisor if your degree allows. Keep the jurisdiction clear. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- The Code on Genetic Testing and Insurance: how well does a voluntary agreement protect UK consumers? Assess the code’s terms and compare with statutory approaches elsewhere.
- Australia’s ban on genetic discrimination in life insurance: lessons for the UK Check the current legal position, then compare policy design and likely effects.
- The 23andMe breach and the ICO penalty: data protection duties for genetic data under UK GDPR A focused data law case study with a clear regulatory outcome to analyse.
- Special category data and genetic information: the lawful basis question for research Explain how the UK GDPR treats genetic data in research and what researchers must show.
- Patenting genes after the Myriad decision: a comparison of US and European approaches Trace the case law and its effect on diagnostic testing.
- Forensic genetic genealogy: investigative genealogy and the privacy of relatives Review cases and legal safeguards, and consider the position in the UK.
- The UK National DNA Database: retention rules after S and Marper Trace the legal change and assess current retention limits.
- Ownership of tissue and cell lines: the Henrietta Lacks case and modern consent rules A history and ethics case study with a clear modern relevance.
- Genetic exceptionalism: is genetic data really different from other health data? Present both sides with philosophy and law sources.
- Genome-edited food labelling and consumer choice under the Precision Breeding Act in England Describe the regulations and ask whether labelling should differ from the EU approach.
- The EU new genomic techniques regulation compared with England’s precision breeding rules Compare the two regimes carefully, citing the current texts.
- Benefit sharing and indigenous genomic data sovereignty Review frameworks such as CARE principles and their use in practice.
Ancestry, Population Genetics and Ancient DNA Dissertation Topics
These topics answer popular questions about ethnicity and diversity with proper evidence. Avoid essentialist language. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- How accurate are consumer ancestry estimates? Comparing reference panels across testing companies Explain why the same person receives different percentages and what that tells you about the method.
- Why ‘race’ is a poor genetic category: within-group versus between-group variation Use population genetics literature to explain clinal variation and sampling effects.
- The People of the British Isles project and fine-scale genetic structure in the UK Summarise findings on regional clustering and discuss historical explanations.
- Ancient DNA and the Bell Beaker transition in Britain Review the published genome-wide analyses and the debate on population replacement.
- Neanderthal and Denisovan ancestry in present-day humans and its health effects Focus on named variants linked to immune function or disease risk.
- Founder effects and reduced diversity in Iceland and Finland Compare their usefulness for gene discovery with the limits of generalising results.
- Genetic diversity within Africa compared with other continents Explain the demographic history behind high diversity and sampling gaps.
- Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineage tracing: what each can and cannot show A short methods critique suited to anthropology links.
- Sex chromosome evolution: why the human Y chromosome keeps its gene set Review the debate about Y degeneration and the recent complete assembly.
- The Human Pangenome Reference and the move beyond a single reference genome Explain why reference bias matters, using named alignment studies.
- Lactase persistence: genetic evidence for gene-culture coevolution A classic case study with cross-population data.
- High-altitude adaptation in Tibetans: EPAS1 and the Denisovan connection Trace the evidence for adaptive introgression.
Microbial, Plant and Animal Genetics Dissertation Topics
Non-human genetics often has better access to experimental systems and shorter generation times. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Antimicrobial resistance genes in wastewater metagenomes Compare detection methods and what they imply for surveillance.
- Horizontal gene transfer of resistance plasmids in Escherichia coli A bench or bioinformatics project tracking plasmid spread.
- Whole genome sequencing for tuberculosis drug resistance prediction Review the accuracy of sequence-based prediction versus culture methods.
- SARS-CoV-2 variant genomic surveillance in the UK Describe the sequencing pipeline and its public health contribution.
- CRISPR gene drives in Anopheles mosquitoes for malaria control: ecological risk and governance Combine genetics with risk assessment and policy debate.
- Genome-edited crops in England under the Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Act 2023 Analyse the scope of the Act and the evidence on yield and safety claims.
- Marker-assisted selection for disease resistance in wheat Review a named resistance gene and breeding outcomes.
- Inbreeding depression in captive breeding programmes for an endangered species Use published pedigree or genomic data to measure effects.
- Population genomics of the European badger and bovine tuberculosis Examine what genetic data say about movement and transmission.
- Domestication genes in dogs: AMY2B copy number and starch digestion Test the evidence for diet-driven selection.
- Genetics of antibiotic persistence in bacteria A mechanism-focused review or lab project.
- Environmental DNA for monitoring a named UK species A practical project design for ecology-genetics crossover.
Bioinformatics and Computational Genetics Dissertation Topics
These suit students with coding skills. Use open data, version your code and state your software versions. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- Benchmarking variant callers: GATK versus DeepVariant on the Genome in a Bottle truth set A reproducible comparison with clear precision and recall metrics.
- Quality control pitfalls in GWAS: population stratification and cryptic relatedness Demonstrate effects with simulated and real data.
- Machine learning for splice site prediction: SpliceAI performance on clinically relevant variants Test on ClinVar variants and discuss false positives.
- AlphaFold structure prediction and variant effect: where it helps and where it does not Use named proteins and compare with experimental structures.
- Fine-mapping methods compared: SuSiE versus FINEMAP on a simulated locus A statistics-focused topic with controlled ground truth.
- Reproducibility of RNA-seq differential expression results across tools Re-run a public dataset through two or three pipelines.
- Genomic data compression and storage costs for population-scale sequencing Review the engineering and cost evidence.
- Federated analysis of genomic data without moving individual-level records Examine technical and governance trade-offs.
- Ethics of large language model use in variant interpretation Evaluate published accuracy tests and the risk of hallucinated evidence.
- Imputation accuracy in under-represented populations Compare reference panels and report accuracy by ancestry.
Laboratory and Bench-Based Genetics Dissertation Topics
Only choose a bench project if your department confirms equipment, supervision and time. Otherwise, a desk-based version can reach the same question. These genetics dissertation topics are written to be narrowed further with your supervisor.
- CRISPR knockout of one gene in a human cell line and its effect on proliferation Plan guide design, controls and validation by sequencing and Western blot.
- Drosophila eye colour mutants and classical Mendelian inheritance A teaching-lab-friendly design with chi-square testing.
- Comparing DNA extraction methods for yield and purity from saliva A practical methods comparison with measurable outcomes.
- Optimising qPCR primer design for a single reference gene set Show efficiency curves and melt curve analysis.
- Zebrafish morpholino or CRISPR models of a human developmental gene Address ethics approval and licensing early.
- Yeast complementation assays for human variant function A cost-effective way to test pathogenicity of selected missense variants.
- Mutation rate estimation in bacteria using a fluctuation assay Choose a selective marker and apply a suitable estimator.
- Short tandem repeat profiling for cell line authentication Link identity testing with research reproducibility.
- Restriction enzyme and PCR-based genotyping of a common SNP in a small consented cohort Take care with consent and data protection, and consider whether a public dataset is safer.
- Plant mutant screening in Arabidopsis for flowering time A classic model system with accessible phenotypes.
How to Narrow a Genetics Dissertation Topic
Start with a broad area, then fix four things: one gene, condition or organism; one dataset or method; one population or setting; and one question type. A question such as “what does genetics say about cancer?” fails all four. “How well does the 2015 ACMG/AMP framework classify BRCA2 missense variants in ClinVar?” passes all four.
Use the guide to choosing research topics to test feasibility, then turn your idea into a question with the research question guide or the research question generator. When your question is ready, set aims with the aims and objectives guide.
Choosing Genetics Dissertation Topics by Level and Method
- Undergraduate: choose a literature review, a systematic review, or a secondary analysis of public data. ClinVar, gnomAD and TCGA are open and well documented.
- Master’s: add a clear method, such as a pipeline comparison, a qualitative interview study or a policy analysis with a defined framework.
- PhD proposal: frame a gap, not a summary. Show what existing studies cannot answer and how your design would address it.
- Wet lab: confirm equipment, supervision and safety training before you choose. Bench projects fail most often through timing.
Population resources such as UK Biobank and gnomAD are common starting points, and Genomics England publishes research on rare disease and newborn sequencing. Check the access route and fees early, because application timelines can be longer than your project schedule.
If your project involves people or personal genetic data, read the ethics approval guide first. For analysis choices, the guide to choosing a statistical test and the statistical test selector help you match test to data, and the sample size calculator shows whether your design has enough power.
Common Mistakes in Genetics Dissertations
- Choosing a topic so broad that no single conclusion is possible.
- Treating polygenic scores, ancestry estimates or heritability figures as certainty rather than estimates with limits.
- Relying on press coverage of trials instead of the trial publication or regulator document.
- Ignoring ancestry bias in reference data when generalising findings.
- Using out-of-date policy positions without stating a cut-off date.
- Leaving ethics and data protection until the end.
A dissertation on genetic data also needs a literature base that is current. The literature review guide explains how to build one, and the dissertation timeline planner helps you schedule it.
Genetics Dissertation Topics FAQs
What are some cool genetics topics for research?
Gene editing with Casgevy, ancient DNA from Bronze Age Britain, newborn genome sequencing, and methylation clocks all give you interesting questions with published evidence behind them. Choose the one where you can name a dataset or a source set you can read.
What is the hardest topic in genetics?
There is no single answer, and it depends on your background. Many students find statistical genetics, such as Mendelian randomisation or fine-mapping, hardest because it combines biology with heavy assumptions. Others struggle most with epigenetics because causal claims are difficult to prove. Pick a topic where the maths or lab skill matches what you can learn in time.
What are the most important topics in genetics right now?
Gene therapy and genome editing, polygenic prediction, rare disease diagnosis through genome sequencing, pharmacogenomics, and the ethics of genetic data are all active areas. Each has a section above with narrow starting points.
Can DNA tell you what ethnicity you are?
Not exactly. Consumer tests compare your DNA with reference panels and estimate genetic similarity to groups of people. Results vary between companies because the panels differ, and genetic ancestry does not map neatly onto ethnicity, which is a social and cultural category. This is a good topic area for a methods critique, as shown in topic 97.
Will geneticists be replaced by AI?
Evidence so far points to AI changing tasks rather than removing the role. Tools can help with variant prioritisation, but clinical scientists and genetic counsellors still interpret results, check evidence and talk with patients. If you want to research this, topic 129 shows how to test claims against published accuracy data.
Next Steps
Pick two or three topics, test each against your data access, supervisor expertise and deadline, and then shortlist one. If you also need a plan to submit for approval, our research proposal writing service can support that stage, and related lists such as immunology dissertation topics and medical law dissertation topics cover neighbouring areas.